登陆注册
5473200000002

第2章

Thus,when we speak of production,we always have in mind production at a definite stage of social development --of production by individuals in a society.It might therefore seems that,in order to speak of production at all,we must either trace the various phases in the historical process of development,or else declare from the very beginning that we are examining oneparticular historical period,as for instance modern bourgeois production,which is,indeed,our real subject matter.All periods of production,however,have certain features in common;they have certain common categories.Production in generalis an abstraction,but a sensible abstraction in so far as it actually emphasizes and defines the common aspects and thus avoids repetition.Yet this generalconcept,or the common aspect which has been brought to light by comparison,is itself a multifarious compound comprising divergent categories.Some elements are found in all epochs,others are common to a few epochs.The most modern period and the most ancient period will have [certain]categories in common.Production without them is inconceivable.But,although the most highly-developed languages have laws and categories in common with the most primitive languages,it is precisely their divergence from these general and common features which constitutes their development.It is necessary to distinguish these definitions which apply to production in general,in order not to overlook the essential differences existing despite the unity that follows from the very fact that the subject (mankind)and object (nature)are the same.For instance,on failure to perceive this fact depends the entire wisdom of modern economists who prove the eternity and harmony of existing social relations.For example,no production is possible without an instrument of production,even if this instrument is simply the hand.It is not possible without past,accumulated labor,even if this labor is only the skill acquired by repeated practice and concentrated in the hand of a savage.Capital is,among other things,also an instrument of instrument of production,and also past,materialized labor.Consequently,capital is a universal and eternal relation given by nature --that is,provided one omits precisely those specific factors which turn the "instrument of production"or "accumulated labor"into capital.The whole history of the relations of production thus appears,for instance in Carey's writings,as a falsification malevolently brought about by government.

Just as there is no production in general,so there is also no general production.Production is always a particular branch of production --e.g.agriculture,cattle-breeding,manufacture --or it is the totalityof production.Political economy,however,is not technology.The relations of the general categories of production at a given social stage to the particular forms of production is to be set forth elsewhere (later).

Finally,not only is production particularproduction,but it is invariably only a definite social corpus,a social subject,that is engaged in a wider or narrower totality of production spheres.The relation of academic presentation to the actual process does not belong here either.Production in general Particular branches of production.

Totality of production.

It is fashionable to preface economic works with a general part --and it is just this which appears under the heading "Production",see for instance John Stuart Mill --which deals with the general conditions of all production.This general part comprises or purports to comprise:

1.The conditions without which production cannot be carried on.

This means,in fact,only that the essential factors required for any kind of production are indicated.But this amounts actually,as we shall see,to a few very simple definitions,which become reduced to trivial tautologies.

2.The conditions which promote production to a larger or smaller degree,as in the case of Adam Smith's progressive and stagnant state of society.

To give this,which in Smith's work has its value as an apercu,to give it scientific significance,research into the degree of productivityat various periods in the development of individual nations would have to be conducted;strictly speaking,such an investigation lies outside the framework of the subject.Those aspects which are however relevant to it ought to be mentioned in connection with the development of competition,accumulation,etc.

The answer in its general form amounts to the general statement that an industrial nation achieves its highest productivity which it is altogether at the height of its historical development.(In fact,a nation is at the height of its historical development so long as,not the gain,but gaining remains its principal aim.In this respect,the Yankees are superior to the English.)Or else that,for example,certain races,formations,climates,natural circumstances,such as maritime position,fertility of the soil,etc.are more conducive to production that others.This,again,amounts to the tautological statement that the production of wealth grows easier in the measure that its subjective and objective elements becomes available.

同类推荐
热门推荐
  • 楚中蛊

    楚中蛊

    从把皇城发派至南疆的大臣被神秘暗杀开始,皇城追杀楚悬阁杀手二十八,并放话奖赏南疆能“医死人,肉白骨”的凤凰蛊,由此揭示南疆凤凰蛊与皇朝的时代纠葛揭秘,守护圣女与二十八的慢慢揭开被掩盖多年的帷幕。一个楚悬阁的杀手,排行二十八,一个南疆的“凤凰蛊”守护的圣女。戏精演员三观不正的女主和专注实事的男主,如何出演一场大戏,且慢慢开场。
  • 浮城

    浮城

    当一场灾难突然降临,一座城市在一夜之间从陆地上断裂,孤岛似的漂浮在惊涛骇浪中,从此,“浮城”就像一艘巨舰,带着茫然的人们走向未知的命运。危海浮城,人鸥之战,惊心动魄,可谓惨不忍睹,惨不忍诉。人们面临一次又一次的危机,利益冲突大爆发,国人人性的劣点在《浮城》里表现得淋漓尽致:游戏般的残忍、邪狞的妒恨、同胞互憎的丑恶、无政府状态的心理病毒……《浮城》让我们仿佛看到了生活在世纪末的人们在陷入尴尬而可怕的生存境地时,社会各层面所表现的人生百态,这让每一个读者的内心充满了无可言状的惆怅与悲凉。
  • 空间之宠妾难养

    空间之宠妾难养

    苏绮沫,异世而来的穿越女,本应是异世高管,却意外来到历史上没有的架空大盛王朝,更是意外获得随身空间,人生信条是:生命诚可贵,爱情价更高,若为自由故,两者皆可抛。陌墨,大盛王朝的当朝四皇子,更是已故元皇后的唯一独子,在这个立贤不立“长”的皇室,他知道一个没有母后的皇子在宫中是多么艰难,他韬光养晦,事事肃吝,在外人看来,他是一个性情阴翳的冷面皇子。他的人生宗旨是:只要自己看上了,就要不择手段地夺过来!桃花林的那一眼,注定了他的纠缠,也造就了他们此生的牵绊。苍劲有力的食指轻抬起她的下颚,拇指来回慢慢摸索“怎么?爷受罚你好像很高兴?”原本深埋着的头在被抬起瞬间立马轻启朱唇“爷说笑了,实际上我很难过!真的很难过!”说着还眨了两下那双黑葡萄般的杏眼,里面瞬间雾气蒙蒙。
  • 三天学会催眠术

    三天学会催眠术

    催眠术不是魔术,而是缓解身心压力、揭开人们心结的心理疗法。催眠可以松弛我们紧绷的神经,化解意识构筑的心理防 线,唤醒沉睡的潜意识。在貌似“半睡半醒”的催眠 状态下,遗忘的记忆、尘封的往事会渐渐浮现出来,而我们在现实生活中的诸多困扰都可以从中找到根源,从而得以化解。书内容包括:催眠的原理,如何判断一个人是否 适合接受催眠,催眠的步骤和方法,如何进行自我催眠,催眠的具体应用,例如戒烟、减肥、治疗失眠、增强自信等。
  • 成为神明的日子

    成为神明的日子

    神奇的未知世界,各种各样的妖魔鬼怪,夜以空到了这个世界以后莫名的成了神,然后他首要的任务就是算算自己还能活几天。什么?没有信众的信仰自己就会消失!!夜以空看着眼前这个一个破旧的快要倒闭的神社和一个和自己莫名的绑定契约的神使,他突然觉得日子似乎也不是那么难过了。为了能让自己活的更久一点,夜以空开始了自己除魔算卦,收纳信徒的道路。【总之这是一个意外成为神明,然后开始想办法壮大自己的神社的故事】〖大家可以不要看原著,因为作者写的和原著――没什么太多的联系〗
  • 言能笔记

    言能笔记

    有的人天生就注定了不平凡,或拥有异于常人的智慧,或拥有超凡的体魄,或拥有特异的能力,或者根本非人类……一旦这样的一群人凑到了一起,世界将被重新续写。世界上存在着这样一类人,生来就是为了打破表面的平衡,揭开虚伪的面纱。一旦这样的人出现了,统治者们会倾尽全力将这样的苗头扼杀在萌芽期。预言之所以能成真,是因为预言在人们的心里种下了一颗不安分的种子,促使着人们将预言推向现实;莫言的母亲历经千辛万苦,躲避重重追杀,终于等到小言及笄,原以为苦尽甘来,却不知一切才刚刚开始,那则关于帝王的预言……
  • 凰医帝临七神

    凰医帝临七神

    (原名《焚尽七神:狂傲女帝》)前世,她贵为巅峰女帝,一夕之间局势逆转,沦为废材之质。魂灵双修,医毒无双,血脉觉醒,一御万兽。天现异象,凰命之女,自此归来,天下乱之。这一次,所有欺她辱她之人必杀之!他自上界而来,怀有目的,却因她动摇内心深处坚定的道义。“你曾说,你向仰我,你想像我一样,步入光明,是我对不起你,又让你重新回到黑暗。”“你都不在了,你让我一个人,怎么像向仰你?!”爱与不爱,从来都是我们自己的事,与他人无关。带走了所有的光明与信仰。
  • 陌生的朋友

    陌生的朋友

    本书收录的作品主要包括:陌生的朋友、抠字眼的小女孩、顺手帮一把、千年古参、上边有人、考验爱情、我的群主,我的“群”、你追我涨、年度最佳慈善家、笔记本上的秘密等。
  • 重生之独步惊华

    重生之独步惊华

    顾轻欢只想找个普通人家平平稳稳地过日子,奈何天不遂人愿,偏把她牵扯到皇位争夺的战争里去。容颜倾城如何,才富五车如何,隐忍不争又如何,最终还不是被高位者随意决定生死。重活一世,她看淡了一切,既然争与不争都没什么不同,自己何不拼尽一切为自己挣个锦绣前程。于是这一世她不再故意掩藏自己的锋芒,谁说女子只能靠男人,她顾轻欢不靠家族,不倚权势,自己照样能独步惊华。精彩片段:“若用这江山能换你一颗真心,是我赚了。”男子坚定地望着她,眼中是满满柔情和爱意。“我不会爱上你的。”女子毫不留情地拒绝。“你别一下子就给我判了死刑,以后的路还长的,说不定哪天你就改变主意。”男子不以为然地笑道,他对自己很有信心。多年后,某小太子疑惑地问自己的父亲,“爹爹,为什么娘亲不娶你?”“乖,是我娶你娘亲。”男子一脸慈爱地纠正自己的儿子。“可是管叔叔说娘亲是皇帝,她不要你,以后要娶别的男子。”小太子咬着唇。男子脸色发黑,好你个管术桓在我儿子面前胡说八道,下次逮住你一定要好好收拾一顿。本文1v1,男女主双洁,结局He,请各位看官放心食用。最后求打赏和推荐。
  • 极品时空掠夺系统

    极品时空掠夺系统

    剧情主角是用来踩的,灵丹妙药,极品功法,是用来装的,万千世界,谁主沉浮,且看林峰的穿越情仇极品时空掠夺系统读者群:494940465有什么想要想作者提意见的,可以加入此群,向作者提意见。